A consideration of the principles and practice that underpin the Early Years Foundation Stage and how the current framework relates to young childrens needs and interests The WritePass Journal

A consideration of the principles and practice that underpin the Early Years Foundation Stage and how the current framework relates to young childrens needs and interests Introduction A consideration of the principles and practice that underpin the Early Years Foundation Stage and how the current framework relates to young childrens needs and interests ) infers that such an approach could have positive longitudinal consequences for the child, including improved academic attainment and retention of knowledge, which seems to be a sound rationale for such an approach. Whilst it seems essential that the indoor environment should be stimulating cognitively, it may be wise not to neglect the emotional aspect of it.   Again, the key worker is at the centre of providing the warmth needed in an enabling environment. Nutbrown and Page (2008) assert that they should show warm responses to the children under their care and react well to them. In essence, an enabling environment is made up of the components of suitable and stimulating indoor and outdoor areas, which the key worker is central in maintaining and facilitating. Principle 4- Children develop and learn in different ways and rates The final principle espoused by the EYFS framework is perhaps more concerned with the cognition of children, although it does refer to their social and emotional development in part. Nevertheless, Katz (1988, as cited in Carr, 2001, p.21) hypothesises that each child has a certain ‘disposition’, something which is distinct from learning; it is concerned more with how they react to certain situations and the habits they adopt and carry out on a regular basis. In a later document, Katz (1993) elaborates that dispositions in young children are normally learned from those around or the environment they are raised in or looked after, which seems to resonate with Bandura’s (1977) theory of modelling mentioned earlier in the assignment. Katz (1993) also articulates that dispositions are strengthened when they are acknowledged and efforts are made to continue them (particularly if they are good habits), which seems to emphasise the importance of treating the child as an i ndividual. It seems evident that all children learn and develop in different ways, as evidenced by the argument above. However, a conjecture could be made that there may be certain strategies which a practitioner or worker can implement which will result in children developing into sensible and mature adults. One way in which to do this is to cultivate a child’s resilience in their ability to complete a task or try a new activity.   Children may give up if they perceive the task to be beyond their capabilities and not extend themselves to complete this. This could be a natural response from the child (particularly if the task is incommensurate with their skillset) or it could be something that they have learned over time. Dweck (1975: 673) terms this as ‘learned helplessness’, where a child habitually gives up in the face of a challenging task or adversity, possibly because of a lack of response from the adult in encouraging the child to complete the task and persevere. Combining the sentiments expressed by Katz and the argument above, could be essential in helping children to progress appropriately, particularly when faced with unfamiliar situations and tasks.   Siraj- Blatchford et al. (2002) concluded in their Researching Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years (REPEY) study that shared sustained thinking was crucial in helping a child to tackle new problems and persist. This is defined as two or more individuals (with at least one adult ‘facilitator’) working together to complete a task, although the authors stress that each person should be actively contributing to the task, and that there must be a progression towards an eventual solution, even if that is reached straight away. This coincides with Vygotsky’s (1977) theory of cognitive development, which posits that a child will enhance their zone of proximal development (the difference between what they can do on their own and with help) if they are supported by a more know ledgeable other such as an adult or more capable peer.   Both arguments suggest that collaboration between adults and children is essential to further the child’s development, although again the manner in which this is done should be unique to the child by using questioning which is appropriate to the child’s level of cognitive development (Bloom et al., 1956). Conclusion The rationale which underpins the EYFS framework is the need to treat the child as a unique individual and consider their needs at length, in a cognitive, emotional, social and physical sense to facilitate optimum development in them. There are several ways to ensure this, including that the environment is stimulating and appropriate enough for the child’s needs, that they have access to a multitude of activities, that the key worker has a warm and fulfilling relationship with the child and that they encouraged to develop a growth mind set and persevere with challenging tasks with the facilitation of another adult. Arguably, if a childcare provider follows all of the actions above and adheres to the EYFS framework, then this should allow for children to progress to the desired level of development and maturity. References Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H. and Krathwohl, D. R. (1956) Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Company. Bowlby, J. (1951) ‘Maternal Care and Mental Health.’ World Health Organization Monograph. Bowlby, J. (1953) Child Care and the Growth of Love. London: Penguin Books. Bruner, J. S. (1961) ‘The act of discovery’. Harvard Educational Review, 31 (1): 21–32. Carr, M. (2001) Assessment in Early Childhood Settings. London: SAGE. Department for Family, Education and Skills (2004) Every Child Matters. [Online]. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130401151715/https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/standard/publicationdetail/page1/dfes/1081/2004 (Accessed: 24 November 2014). Department for Education (2010) Social and emotional aspects of learning (SEAL) programme in secondary schools: national evaluation. [Online]. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/social-and-emotional-aspects-of-learning-seal-programme-in-secondary-schools-national-evaluation (Accessed: 24 November 2014). Department for Education (2013a) Improving the quality and range of education and childcare from birth to 5 years. [Online]. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/policies/improving-the-quality-and-range-of-education-and-childcare-from-birth-to-5-years/supporting-pages/early-years-foundation-stage (Accessed: 24 November 2014). Department for Education (2013b) Early years outcomes: A non-statutory guide for practitioners and inspectors to help inform understanding of child development through the early years. [Online]. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/237249/Early_Years_Outcomes.pdf (Accessed: 24 November 2014). Department for Education (2014) Early years foundation stage framework. [Online]. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/early-years-foundation-stage-framework2 (Accessed: 24 November 2014). Dweck, C.S. (1975) ‘The role of expectations and attributions in the alleviation of learned helplessness.’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31: 674-685. Dweck, C. (2006)  Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Ballantine Books. Elfer, P., Goldschmied, E. and Selleck, D. (2003) Key Persons in the Nursery: Building relationships for quality provision. London: David Fulton. Garrick, R., Bath, C., Dunn, K., Maconochie, H., Willis, B. and Claire Wolstenholme (2010) Children’s experiences of the Early Years Foundation Stage. DfE: London. Gardner, H. (2004) Changing Minds: The art and science of changing our own and other peoples minds. Harvard Business School Press. Gov. UK (2014) Free early education and childcare. [Online]. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/free-early-education (Accessed: 24 November 2014). Katz, L.G. (1988) ‘What Should Young Children Be Doing?’ American Educator: The Professional Journal of the American Federation of Teachers: 29-45. Katz, L. (1993) Dispositions: Definitions and implications for early childhood practices. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. Nutbrown, C. and Page, J. (2008) Working with Babies and Children Under Three. London: Sage. Piaget, J. (1952) The Origin of Intelligence in Children. New York: International University Press, Inc. Siraj-Blatchford, I., Sylva, K., Muttock, S., Gilden, R. and Bell, D. (2002) Researching Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years (REPEY) DfES Research Report 365. HMSO London: Queen’s Printer. Steel, N. (2012) Encyclopaedia of the Sciences of Learning. New York: Springer. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford I. and Taggart, B. (2004) The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project: Final report. London: DfES and Institute of Education, University of London. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

How to Give Teenagers Advice Lesson for ESL

How to Give Teenagers Advice Lesson for ESL In this lesson plan, students will have the opportunity to practice offering advice to teenagers. This can be an especially fun activity to do with high school students. Lesson Plan - Giving Advice to Teenagers Aim: Building reading comprehension and advice giving skills / focus on modal verb should and modal verbs of deduction Activity: Reading about teenage problems followed by group work Level: Intermediate - Upper Intermediate Outline: Start off the lesson by asking students to suggest what type of problems teenagers typically may have.Use one of the problems mentioned and inductively review modal verbs of deduction by asking questions such as, What must have happened to the boy?, Do you think he might have lied to his parents?, etc.Ask students for advice on what the person should do (reviewing the modal verb should).Have students get into small groups (four or five students).Distribute the handout with the various teen problems taken from real life. Assign one (or two) situations to each group.Have the students answer the questions as a group. Ask students to use the same forms as given in the questions (i.e. What might he have thought? - ANSWER: He might have thought it was too difficult.)Students should then use the sheet to report back to the class actively using the modal verb should to give advice.As a follow-up exercise or homework:Ask students to write about a problem they have had.Students should not writ e their names on their short problem descriptionDistribute the problems to other studentsHave students answer the questions about the situation described by on of their classmatesAsk students to verbally give recommendations Teenage Problems - Giving Advice ​ questionnaire: Read your situation and then answer the following questions What might the relationship be between the person and his / her parents?How must he / she feel?What cant have happened?Where might he / she live?Why might he / she have this problem?What should he / she do? (Give at least 5 suggestions) Teenage Problems:Sample Texts Should I Marry Him? I have been with my boyfriend for almost four years, We are going to get married next year but, there are a couple of concerns I have: One is the fact that he never talks about his feelings - he keeps everything inside of him. He sometimes has trouble with expressing his excitement about things. He never buys me flowers or takes me out to dinner. He says that he doesnt know why, but he never thinks of things like that. I dont know if this is a side effect of depression or, maybe, he is sick of me. He says that he loves me  and that he wants to marry me. If this is true, what is his problem? Female, 19 For Friendship or Love? Im one of those guys who have the quite normal problem: Im in love with a girl, but I dont know what to do. I have already had a crush on some girls, never with any success, but this is something different. My problem is actually that Im too cowardly to tell her anything. I know that she likes me and were very, very good friends. Weve known each other for about three years, and our friendship has constantly become better. We often get into quarrels, but we always make up. Another problem is that we often talk about problems with each other, so I know she is having problems with her boyfriend (who I think is no good for her). We meet almost every day. We always have a lot of fun together, but is it really so difficult to love someone who has been a good chum until now? Male, 15 Please Help me and My Family My family doesnt get along. Its like we all hate each other. Its my mom, my two brothers, a sister, and I. I am the oldest. We all have certain problems: My mom wants to quit smoking so she is really stressed out. I am really selfish - I just cant help it. One of my brothers is too bossy. He thinks he is better than the rest of us, and that he is the only one who helps my mom. My other brother is kind of abusive and depressed. He always starts fights and hes really spoiled. My mom doesnt yell at him for doing things wrong and when she does, he laughs at her. My sister - whos 7 - makes messes and doesnt clean them up. I really want to help because I dont like being upset all of the time and having everyone hate everyone else. Even when we start to get along, someone will say something to upset someone else. Please help me and my family. Female, 15 Hates School I hate school. I cannot stand my school so I skip it almost every day. Luckily, I am a smart person. Im in all of the advanced classes and dont have a reputation as a rebel. Only the people who really know me know about my strange feelings. My parents dont care - they dont even mention it if I dont go to school. What I end up doing is sleeping all day and then staying up all night talking to my girlfriend. I get behind in my work and, when I try to go back to school, I get a bunch of crap from my teachers and friends. I just get so depressed when I think about it. I have given up on trying to go back and am considering dropping out altogether. I really dont want to do that because I realize it would ruin my life. I dont want to go back at all, but I also dont want it to ruin my life. I am so confused and I have really tried to go back and just cant take it. What should I do? Please help. Male, 16

Geography Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Geography - Annotated Bibliography Example Bonnett provides the readers with a comprehensive understanding of the geography discipline. No single phrase gives the exact definition of the term geography as a discipline covering both modernity and ancient. The author examines various challenging assumptions regarding the idea of geography and argues that the term geography can never be definite and accurate because the ideas are both ancient and modern. From the viewpoint of the author, geography is ‘the world discipline’ and ‘one of the humanity’s big ideas’. Bonnett’s layout of this book is well-structured into three main parts that include, the challenging assumptions, geography in the context of a globalizing world, and the three fundamental aspects of geography. The vision of geography holds as the most useful subject for a globalizing world. To ensure an all-inclusive coverage, Bonnett considered a range of previous research works to define the term ‘geography’ in diffe rent ways. He concludes that there is still little evidence documentation supporting modern geography, which opens up new scope for further research.Catling outlines ideas in this book that are relevant in the current academic world because few studies had addressed the perceptions of trainee teachers about the term ‘geography’ at that particular point in time. Training geography not only entails understanding the subject but also a conception of the reasons for such training. As the title indicates, this paper tries to explore the concepts of geography maintained by school trainee teacher in England.

Environmental Studies Class Journal Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Environmental Studies Class Journal - Case Study Example It would be helpful if we could shut down some of the less efficient plants, even if we can't close all of them. Natural gas is one of the state's largest source of energy and only 10% of the state's energy comes from renewables, mostly geothermals followed by biomass, wind, and solar. Economic analyses are decision-making tools for energy projects and techniques to choose among a number of different options. They do not include the benefit to the environment, the benefit to society, or whether you're being a good neighbor. Objectives for this unit are to understand that these analyses can range from simple to complex, be able to review and understand assumptions, be familiar with the limits, and be able to run through example calculations. Types of economic analyses include rough order of magnitude estimates for budget purposes (ROM), Simple payback, and Internal rate of return (IRR). These are used both on new building projects and retrofits. Investment decision types involved in a nalyses include to accept or reject a single project or system operation, to select an optimal efficiency level for a building system, select an optimal system type from competing alternatives, select an optimal combination of interdependent systems, and/or rank competing projects to allocate a limited budget. Assumptions are everything. They define the project and state the objectives, they establish first cost, cost of energy, cost of labor and materials, cost of maintenance, cost of money, tax credits, and inflation. You need to know where they came from, which ones are solid as compared to guesses, and how to adjust when solid numbers are available. To get an idea of how to do this, we looked at the simple payback analysis. The equation is simple payback (in years) = cost divided by savings where the cost is the cost of the project in dollars and the savings are annual energy savings in dollars. In comparing options, you subtract the cost of one benefit over the other. For cost, you should list the assumptions and the sources you used to reach that number, then use the cost difference between the different options. Do the same thing for savings, convert all units to dollars per year. We looked at a refrigerator analysis as an example in which the simple payback was about one and a half years. Then we looked at the example of a water heater which included more complex variables. These two examples really helped demonstrate the important role played by the assumptions that effects the overall solution. The example with the compact fluorescent bulbs showed how to use the spreadsheet program to help us work out the details and allows us to change the variables when we need to, for example if an assumption has changed. After the break, we looked at an online tool that would do these analyses which showed why it's important for us to be able to check these figures for ourselves and then moved on to talk about energy action plans. The second half of class looked at an energy action plan. This was accomplished by looking at the specific example of Stanford University. He talked about the importance of knowing the location, getting management interested, getting the users involved, the maintenance people involved, and performing the energy audit from a variety of perspectives. Things that were important in this section were involving maintenance, the design team, the issue of capital improvement, non-stop measurement,

HCM367-0801B-01 The Health Care Organization - Phase 2 Discussion Essay

HCM367-0801B-01 The Health Care Organization - Phase 2 Discussion Board - Essay Example of physicians, nurses and para-medics, and our health plan which provides medical and health care to thousands of patients, and group health plans which assist thousands of employees in various firms and their families is witness and testimony to the goodwill Vitruvian enjoys. Our involvement in the medical field makes it obligatory for us to pursue excellence while providing the healing touch. Our principles and policies have been established and nurtured over the years which speak for themselves on the course we have chosen in spite of difficulties and hurdles that came our way. There is no question of any deviation on issues concerning our vision and mission. As has always been the case, we will continue to involve in the best practices, attract the best medical professionals, follow the best ethical and business standards, and provide the most effective care and services to society at large for the mutual benefits of our patients as well as our staff and partners. Medical treatment and practices have existed since the foundation of the world. A great amount of faith and fellowship blended with the line of treatment that Dr Montenegro espoused and demonstrated. It challenged the modern day often misinterpreted belief that the best medical treatment can be found only in technologically advanced facilities. Many times these advanced facilities are resorted to even when simpler ones would have sufficed. Nevertheless, the scope to harness the best in technology does exist. As is the case in the medical fraternity the world over, and keeping in view the tremendous potential in the medical technology of the day, it is imperative that we have access to the best medical treatment and facilities for the mutual benefit of our patients and our organization, as and when required. The guiding principles enshrined in the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) will continue to be operational in the future as it is so now. Any changes or modifications required in the days ahead

Subject Of Language And Identity

Subject Of Language And Identity I have chosen this subject of language and identity, which leads to the death of a language, if language dies. Language and identity comes under my course, part 1, under language and cultural context. On the 4th of February 2010, while browsing through BBCs website I stumbled upon a captivating and according to me a very sad article. It read last speaker of ancient language of Bo dies in India, Boa sr.s story saddened me, she died at the age of 85 and for almost thirty years she didnt have anyone to converse with in her native language. Imagine not being able to use English for thirty years, you loose the freedom to express in your first language. As a journalist I knew what it meant for the world to loose a language, its disheartening, in essence a piece of history and culture is lost, I believe it is as important to preserve and save a language as it is to save and preserve the environment, but everyone is not aware of the adverse affects language death can cause. As a journalist, I thought of it as my moral responsibility to throw light on language death and its adverse effects. Thus, I wrote this article and decided on publishing it in a newspaper as it would reach a larger group of people and educate them on why they should preserve their native language. Language death Approximately 7000 languages exist in todays world and this number is rapidly dwindling, is it a cause for concern? As globalization spreads around the world, it is natural that smaller communities would like to move out of their isolation and seek interaction with the rest of the world. The number of languages dying is sorrowful. People naturally tend to shift their language use due to globalization and they leave behind their native language if it is not spoken by a lot of people. Asking them to hold onto a language they do not want anymore and preserve it, just for the sake of linguists and not the community itself, it is a bit too much to ask for, isnt it?But theres actually more to it than what meets the eye. Why fight this? A national geographic study states that every 14 days a language dies. By 2100 more than half of the languages spoken on this earth may disappear, taking away with them a wealth of knowledge on world history, culture and natural environment. Language is the road map of a culture. It tells you where its people come from and where they are going. Rita Mae Brown This quote by the American writer Rita Mae Brown gives us an insight into why preserving a language is of importance. A language defines a culture, through the people who speak it. Every language has words that describe a particular cultural practice or idea, when translated into another language, the precise meaning might not come across. What we essentially lose is cultural heritage. The way of expressing the relationship with nature, with the world, it is also the way in which people express humor, their love, their life; most importantly communicating effectively with family is lost. Languages are living, breathing organisms holding connections that define a culture. When a language dies a culture is lost. Because of the close links language and identity share, if an individual or group thinks of their language as useless, they think of their identity as the same. This could have adverse effects; it could lead to depression, drug abuse and social disruption. And as parents no longer pass on their language to their children the connection between grandparents and children is lost which leads to traditional values not being handed on and theres a vacuum that remains where people for generations realize they have lost something. Many languages are in danger of extinction thathave rich oral cultures with stories, songs, and histories passed on from generation to generation, but with no particular written form. Much of what us humans know about nature is encoded in oral languages. For thousands of years now native groups have interacted closely with the natural world and have insightful understanding on local lands, plants, animals, and ecosystems. Many still are not documented by science itself. Therefore studying indigenous languages proves to be beneficial while learning about the environment and conservation. Sanskrit is one such ancient language that is loosing its prominence and its speakers decreasing everyday. It was said to be the mother of all languages. Sanskrit is not practically used and maybe that is one of reasons of its decline but I believe it should be conserved because of the traditional values it possesses and because of its richness in culture. Take for instance Arthashastra, it is an Indian treatise written in Sanskrit which deals with statecraft, economic policy and military strategy it was written all the way back in 4th century BC. These concepts are not new and modern, they have been around for a long time now, if we do not conserve Sanskrit we will loose all of this valuable knowledge and also lose a piece of history. All is not lost for those who want the smaller languages to survive. Another such language dying out is Palenquero. Palenquero is thought to the one and only Spanish-based Creole language in Latin America. Fewer than half of the community speaks it. It is spoken in the village of San Basilio De Palenque. Many children and young adults understand the language and pronounce a few phrases, which is a great sign as the village of San Basilio De Palenque is trying to preserve its language and spread it, the villages resilience is commendable. And other communities whose languages are close to extinction should look at them as an example. Why do languages die out though? Throughout history, the languages of powerful groups and imperial countries have spread while the languages of the smaller cultures and groups have become extinct. This happens due to official language policies and also the allure of speaking a highly prestigious global language such as English. These trends explain why a small country like Bolivia would have more of language diversity rather than a big country like the USA. As big languages spread, children whose parents speak a comparatively smaller language tend to grow up learning the more dominant language. Those children may never learn the smaller language, or they may just forget it as it falls out of use. These trends have occurred throughout history, but what is alarming and worrying is the rate at which languages are disappearing, it has significantly accelerated over the recent years. Associations and initiatives such as Enduring voices, Living tongue, and the endangered languages project by Google are trying to preserve language and that is a sign of hope. The organizations that are involved and that have come up with these ideas are national geographic and Google. The death of a language is an indication of a human crisis: the loss of a store of wisdom, the sense of a community being thrown away. As we try to stop global warming and save the environment, we should also try and save our languages, as they are an integral part of our heritage.

The Time Machine by H.G. Wells Essay -- Papers HG Wells Essays

The Time Machine by H.G. Wells Works Cited Not Included Time traveling, a concept known to modern man as inconceivable, but in The Time Machine, by H.G. Wells, this fathom of human fantasy has come to life. Wells entangles a unique blend of contrasting characters, conflicts of capitalist verses laborer divisions, and foreshadowing of the destruction of humanity to seem together this novel of visionary proportions. "The Time Machine is a bleak and sober vision of man's place in the Universe."(McConnell Pg.1581) Well's use of characters in The Time Machine brings a heavy sense of contrast and diversity into the story. There are five main characters around which the story revolves. Beginning with the Eloi and the Morlocks, which are the two branches of humanity in the year 802,701. The Eloi, who are our capitalist force, and whom resemble modern humans the most, live above ground and feed on the vast vegetation that has engulfed the Earth. The Eloi are lazy and mind spans to that of a five-year-old. The Eloi never fully mature for the cannibalistic Morlocks harvest them at a certain age as food. The Eloi are described as fair of skin and hair and are considered childlike and frail. "Fragile little creatures perhaps four feet tall, they pass their time in playing gently, in bathing in the river, in making love in a half-playful fashion, in eating fruit and sleeping. Human vigor and energy have passed into languor and decay."(McConnell Pg.3865) The Eloi live in splendid castles, but these bea utiful porcelain castles are crumbling because of a lack of maintenance due to inferiority and lack of concern from the Eloi. "But a second look reveals that is only a ruined splendor. All human artifacts are slowly crumbling. Some of th... ... try to make a difference on the people of that time. He leaves and tells Mr. Hillyer to prepare for his return, but he never makes it back. "Wells leaves unanswered the question whether the Time Traveler succeeded, for the man never returns. Thus our future, insofar as the reader is concerned, remains in jeopardy, since we cannot know what effects the Time Travelers warning might have had on future humans."(Magill Pg.867) H.G. Wells' use of contrasting characters, capitalist verse laborer conflicts, and the foreshadowing of humanities destruction have made this book not only one not to be overlooked, but one not ever to be forgotten as well. The possibilities of the future are endless, but The Time Machine clearly goes to show that the fate of the future will be what we as a society make of it, and the possibilities and impossibilities are merely consequence.

Lecture Notes for Bio 106

Reproductive roles Male’s job is to get the sperm to the egg The sperm are specialized to deliver the male’s genes to the egg Female’s job is to produce a gamete (egg) containing the female’s genes Egg is specialized to nourish the embryo Egg is large and contains nutrients Egg must be moved along Female must also nourish and protect the embryo and fetus This is the job of the uterus Male reproductive strategy: Produce millions of gametes and hope that one makes it to the egg Female reproductive strategy: Invest heavily in one gamete and nourish and protect it Egg Cell (Ovum; 1 copy each chromosome) Sperm Cell (1 copy of each chromosome) MEIOSIS (a type of cell division that begins with a cell with 2 copies of each chromosome and ends with 4 cells with 1 copy of each chromosome) FERTLIZATION (Fusion of Egg and Sperm nuclei; creates a cell with 2 copies of each chromosome) Zygote (cell formed by fusion of egg and sperm; has 2 copies of each chromosome; will develop into new individual) Ovary (in female) Testis (in male) 1 Gonads: a. Testes in male b. Ovaries in females 1. roduce gametes Male = sperm Female = ovum or egg join zygote; new individual 2. produce sex hormones testosterone estrogen + progesterone Male Reproductive System Testes located in scrotum why? sperm don't survive well at body temperature is 3-4o F cooler temp kept constant by reflex how? – pass through the inguinal canal before birth hole usually closed over with connective tissue possible problems 1. cryptorchidism failure of the testes to descend if not corrected, results in sterility corrected by surgery or by administering hormones 2. inguinal hernia inguinal canal does not completely close intestine may push into opening correct with surgery more common in men but may occur in women Inside Testes 1. eminiferous tubules about 1000 site where sperm are produced by a process called spermatogenesis produce 100 million+ sperm each day from puberty until death spermatogenesis A. takes place in an orderly progression from the outside edge of seminiferous tubule to inside (lumen) B. involves changes in genetic information and changes in the shape and functioning of cell sperm carry father’s genetic contribution to next offspring body cells have 2 copies of each chromosome (1 from Mom & 1 from Dad) gametes (egg or sperm) can have only 1 copy of each chromosome meiosis = the type of cell division that produces gametes 1 cell with 2 copies of each chromosome Meiosis spermatogenesis 4 cells with 1 copy of each chromosome Sperm Structure 2 designed to deliver male’s genetic contribution to next generation 1.Head – contains male’s genetic contribution to next generation; almost all nucleus 2. Acrosome – a sac containing enzymes to will allow the sperm to digest the outer layers around egg so sperm nucleus can reach egg nucleus 3. Mitochondria – energy to fuel the trip to egg 4. Tail (or flagellum) has contractile fibers for motility; allows the sperm to swim to egg 2. interstitial cells – produce male sex hormone – testosterone Still in testis – between seminiferous tubules Beginning at puberty these cells secrete testosterone They are stimulated to secrete testosterone by LH, a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland LH (from anterior pituitary) stimulates the release of testosteroneHORMONES chemical messengers produced by certain glands and released into the blood hormone reaches all cells only cells with a receptor for that hormone can respond a cell responds by doing what that cell does it might divide it might produce a chemical it might increase rate of certain chemical reactions so hormones have different effects on different cells cells without receptors for that hormone cannot respond 3 Cell 1 (with receptor) Effect 1 Cell 2 (with receptor) Effect 2 Hormone Into blood supply throughout body Cell 3 (with receptor) Effect 3 Cell 4 (no rec eptor) No Effect Testosterone causes: development of male reproductive apparatus sperm maturation secondary sex characteristics sex drive (in part) Possible problems with testes Testicular cancer: most common in males 25-30 yrs. more common if testes did not descend after 6 yrs. may be hereditary usually does not cause pain Practice self exam! Feel for small lump Best done after a hot shower Sperm next enter a system of tubes to store and transport sperm 1. pididymis: tube about 20 feet long stores sperm sperm mature here, sperm change size and shape, metabolism changes, sperm become capable of moving but don't yet. sperm moved along by peristalsis (a wave of muscle contraction) 2. vas deferens: sperm duct conducts sperm from epididymis to urethra 3. urethra: conducts sperm to outside of body, also conducts urine but never at same time Accessory Glands: 1. Bulbourethral glands mucous secretion just before ejaculation lubricant? Buffers to adjust pH of urethra 2. Prostate gland secre tes fluid, milky color alkaline activates sperm counteracts acidity of female reproductive tract Possible problems with prostate 1. enlarges in older men difficulty urinating & decreased bladder volume 2. rostate cancer grows slowly can spread detected by: rectal exam and blood test for PSA (prostate specific antigen) 4 3. Seminal vesicles make up most of the volume of semen secretion probably nourishes sperm (contains fructose, vitamin C, amino acids, prostaglandins) Result = semen Semen: secretions of accessory glands and sperm about 1 tsp. per ejaculation, about 20 % sperm Functions: transport sperm lubricate passageways nourish sperm decrease acidity of female reproductive tract Penis: Functions: transfer sperm to female conducts sperm outside body tip is enlarged = glans penis (rich in sensory endings) Mechanism of erection 3 columns of spongy tissue arteries dilate ? increase blood delivery veins close down blood accumulatesErectile Dysfunction = Impotence inability to achieve or maintain an erection common problem many possible causes – both physical and emotional drugs now available to help a man have an erection when he is sexually stimulated (e. g. Viagra, Cialis, Levitra) These inhibit the breakdown of the neurotransmitter that causes the arteries in penis to dilate arteries are dilated longer increases and prolongs blood entering the penis ? erection Female Reproductive System gonads = 2 ovaries 1. produce eggs or ova (singular = ovum) egg is specialized to provide nourishment for early embryo large cell full of nutrients 2. produce female hormones: estrogen progesterone Female also nourishes and protects the developing embryo and fetus = job of the uterus 5 Ovarian Cycle = series of events in the ovary that leads to production of egg, estrogen & progesterone 1. ollicle maturation primary follicle = an immature egg surrounded by a layer of follicle cells as follicle matures the immature egg gets larger follicle cells divide and form many lay ers around egg follicle cells secrete estrogen mature follicle egg completes first meiotic division layers of follicle cells splits forming a central cavity filled with fluid containing estrogen egg pushed to side with layer of follicle cells 2. ovulation = release of immature egg from ovary egg released with layer of follicle cells around it rest of follicle cells stay in ovary 3. corpus luteum forms from follicle cells remaining in ovary corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesteroneOVARY primary follicle (immature egg surrounded by follicle cells) mature follicle (many layers of follicle cells, fluid filled cavity, egg surrounded by follicle cells) after ovulation follicle cells remaining in ovary become corpus luteum estrogen progesterone egg 1. estrogen maturation of egg development and maintenance of reproductive structures cell division: thickens lining of uterus also occurs in breast tissue secondary sex characteristics pubic hair armpit hair broader pelvis breast developm ent 2. progesterone prepares uterus for egg implantation maintains pregnancy 6 Oogenesis = the process by which an egg (ovum) is formed Meiosis: starts with a cell that has 2 copies of every chromosome ends with up to 4 cells with 1 copy of every chromosome 1 egg (ovum) and 3 non functional polar bodies IN FEMALES MEIOSIS IS NOT A CONTINUOUS PROCESS Preparations begin efore birth in all potential eggs Then development stops Beginning at puberty, 1 egg continues to the next stage of development The egg is ovulated (released from the ovary) Meiosis is completed ONLY if the egg is fertilized) Number of ova At puberty: potential for about 400,000 eggs Usually 1 each month develops in each monthly cycle (if 2 form and both are fertilized get fraternal twins) total egg production ~ 450 eggs in lifetime menopause – rest of potential eggs have degenerated Oviducts (Fallopian tubes tubes that conduct the egg to the uterus – takes about 3 days open end enlarged and fringed †“ increased surface area for catching egg cilia line oviducts to help move egg along fertilization – usually in upper third of oviduct ectopic pregnancy – usually a tubal pregnancy early embryo implants and begins development at site other than uterus usually in Fallopian tube (oviduct) dangerous to mother – must be terminated Uterus provides nourishment & protects the developing embryo and fetus A. Cervix – tubular portion the extends into vagina has opening through which sperm enter and baby exits B. Body – region in which fetus develops 1.Endometrium – lining site where embryo implants built up each month cell division makes it thicker becomes more vascular (more blood vessels) glands develop that provide nutritious material then lost as menstrual fluid (woman gets her period) 2. muscle allows uterus to expand as fetus grows 60X bigger at full term pregnancy 7 provides force to push baby out Possible problems with uterus: 1. Pelvic Infl ammatory Disease (PID): any bacterial infection of pelvic organs especially uterus, oviducts, ovaries; may spread (peritonitis) may be painful or chronic may have no symptoms often leaves oviduct scarred so that fertility is reduced and the risk of ectopic pregnancy is increased treated with antibiotics most commonly caused by sexually transmitted bacteria the bacteria that cause gonorrhea and chlamydia 2.Cervical cancer: involves external surface of cervix detect with PAP test risk factors -intercourse at an early age -multiple sex partners associated with certain STDsparticularly the HPV (human papilloma virus) that causes genital warts use of condoms and/or diaphragm decreases risk Vagina ~3 muscular passageway to uterus elastic – expands to allow baby through possible problem with vagina: vaginitis most commonly yeast (Candida albicans) not usually sexually transmitted not from poor hygiene bacteria in the vagina produce acid Anything that kills the bacteria or makes the vagina less acidic allows yeast to grow ? vaginitis Clitoris †¢ †¢ †¢ Derived from same embryological structure as the glans penis Becomes engorged with blood during sexual excitement No known function other than pleasure 8Menstrual or Uterine Cycle the endometrium (uterine lining) is built up to nourish the embryo and then it breaks down and is lost as menstrual flow it is a cycle caused by interplay of hormones want the uterus ready to receive embryo if there is one the ovarian cycle that produces the egg must be coordinated with the uterine cycle that prepares the uterus done by same hormones Hormones of the menstrual cycle OVARY Estrogen – from follicle cells in ovary and later from corpus luteum maturation of egg cell division in endometrium (uterine lining) cell division in breast tissue Progesterone – from corpus luteum further development of endometrium maintains endometrium ANTERIOR PITUITARY FSH – follicle stimulating hormone: stimulate s development of follicle LH – luteinizing hormone formation of corpus luteum from follicle cells remaining in ovary maintains corpus luteum Negative Feedback X? Y hormone X leads to an increase in hormone Y Y? X hormone Y causes decrease in hormone X when hormone X levels fall, less hormone Y produced less hormone Y means less inhibition of hormone X hormone X increases and stimulates release of hormone Y IN GENERAL FSH & LH stimulate release of estrogen and progesterone estrogen and progesterone inhibit release of FSH & LH BUT rapid rise in estrogen triggers LH release LH causes corpus luteum to form and secrete estrogen and progesterone corpus lutuem degenerates – estrogen and progesterone levels drop (removes inhibition of FSH) 9Negative feedback in menstrual cycle Low levels of estrogen and progesterone stimulate the release of FSH (and LH) from anterior pituitary FSH stimulates estrogen release by follicle cells in ovary Estrogen (and progesterone) inhibit FSH (a nd LH) release FSH and LH levels drop Estrogen and progesterone levels drop if the egg is fertilized corpus luteum is maintained by a hormone from the embryo called: human chorionic gonadotropic (HCG) hormone for about 5 months the corpus luteum secretes progesterone placenta eventually takes over progesterone secretion progesterone is needed to maintain endometrium if progesterone secretion stops – there is a miscarriage Menopause considered to have occurred when there is no period for 1 year follicles in ovary spontaneously degenerate eggs no longer produced ends child-bearing years estrogen & progesterone no longer produced in ovary occurs most often between 4555yrs. occurs gradually Perimenopause = time leading up to menopause Symptoms hot flashes & dizziness – dilation of arteries in top half of body may be: irritable headaches fatigue physical changes skin drier & less elastic ? wrinkles breasts decrease in size might be change in distribution of hair osteoporosi s – decrease in bone density NEED NOT CHANGE SEXUAL DESIRE 10Estrogen DESIRABLE EFFECTS Brain regulates areas that prepare for reproduction maintains stable body temperature may protect memory Breast Breast programs glands promotes breast to produce milk cancer Liver & Heart helps regulate cholesterol production prevents atherosclerosi s Uterus Uterus programs uterus to promotes nourish fetus cancer of cell division in endometrium endometrium NEGATIVE EFFECTS Estrogen’s Effect on Bone Bone maintains density causes calcium to be absorbed from gut promotes calcium deposit in bones Osteoporosis – decrease in bone density calcium salts make bone hard bones are constantly remodeled built up & broken down in response to stress (weight or pressure) until age 35 more build up than break down peak bone density influenced by: sex race size nutrition exercise that puts weight on bones overall health Bone Formation Blood level Of calcium Calcium in Bone 11Bone Breakdown Die t influences level of calcium in blood good sources of calcium: milk and milk products (choose low fat) dark green vegetables nuts seeds Weight-bearing exercise stimulates bone formation in the bones that are stressed by the exercise walking jogging calcium levels are regulated by hormones calcitonin from thyroid gland causes calcium to be put into bones parathyroid hormone from parathyroid glands causes calcium to be removed from bone estrogen helps absorption of calcium from digestive system stimulates bone formation After menopause estrogen levels greatly decrease Bone Formation Calcitonin Estrogen Blood level Of calcium Calcium in BoneThe Breast Function To produce milk to nourish the young Structure The breast is composed almost entirely of fatty tissue and milk glands milk glands are called lobules each gland drains into a system of ducts these empty into a collecting chamber below nipple several ducts collect into one duct ducts drain through nipple Possible Problems 1. Preme nstrual tenderness breast tissue is prepared each month along with egg and endometrium Estrogen causes cell division in breast tissue Progesterone causes increase in glandular activity Increase in blood supply to breast swelling and tenderness Parathyroid Hormone Bone Breakdown Bone Formation 12 2. fibrocystic breast disease (disorder) an exaggeration of monthly changes in breast tissue built up tissue is not completely reabsorbed and forms cysts feels like many lumps in breast 3. fibroadenoma – noncancerous lump in breast usually in upper & outer quadrant small moveable lump 4. reast cancer will return to this after discussion of cancer 13 Cancer = uncontrolled cell division Cancer cells kill by: depriving other cells of nutrients preventing other cells from performing their duties blocking important pathways (air, blood, nerve) Cells divide Tumor Benign tumor: stays in one place; not cancer Malignant tumor: cancer, cells spread (metastasize) multiple tumors form in other pa rts of body usually spread via blood vessels or lymphatic system In healthy person cell division is regulated Cell Cycle = the orderly sequence of events in the life of a dividing cell G1 – cell growth (G1 checkpoint – is the cell large enough to divide? S (synthesis) – genetic material (DNA of chromosomes) is duplicated G2 – growth and final preparations for cell division (G2 checkpoint – is the DNA replicated? ) Cell division Mitosis – nucleus divides Cytoplasm divides produces two daughter cells Normal controls on cell growth regulate cell division to allow growth and replacement 14 Cancer cells escape controls Normal controls: 1. Genes regulate the cell cycle GENE carries the instructions for making a protein PROTEIN has a job in the cell it might form (part of) a structure it might be regulatory = determine whether a certain cellular process will occur mutation = change in the gene’s information changes the instructions for the p rotein the new protein might not function or might function differently Normal Controls on Cell Division 1.Genes regulate the cell cycle proto-oncogene – normal form of a gene that produces specific proteins that stimulate the cell cycle for growth and repair acts like accelerator about 60 known if other controls were faulty it would enhance the growth of a tumor tumor-suppressor gene – normal form of a gene that produces specific proteins that slow the cell cycle proteins stop cell cycle at one of the checkpoints acts like brakes Normal Genetic Controls on Cell Division tumorprotosuppressor oncogene gene slows stimulates cell division mutations in these cell cycle genes can cause the cell to lose control over cell division Cancer oncogene = mutant protooncogene over stimulates cell division = stuck accelerator can help induce cancer dominant mutation – only need 1 of the 2 copies to be mutant mutant tumor-suppressor gene impairs ability to slow cell cycle = bro ken brakes enhances tumor formation recessive mutation – need mutation in both copies of the gene to have an effect 15 p53 a tumor-suppressor gene detects damaged DNA 2. rogrammed cell death occurs when genes are damaged cancer cells have mutation in other genes that prevent the damaged cells from being destroyed 3. limited life span cell can only divide 50-60 times telomeres – protective pieces on tips of chromosomes end of telomeres shaved off with each cell division telomerase = enzyme that makes telomeres not present in normal cells is present in most cancer cells 4. Need for blood supply controls prevent new blood supply to tissue unless it is damaged cancer cells produce growth factors to attract new blood vessels blood vessels needed to bring nutrients and remove waste also provides route for cancer cells to spread tops cell division initiates DNA repair if too much DNA damage —> p53 triggers programmed cell death Development of cancer need several mutati ons in same cell before cancer starts leukemia – may be as few as 3 mutations colon cancer – may need as many as 9 mutations EXAMPLE ONLY: Development of colon cancer 1. Loss of tumor-suppressor gene from chromosome 5 a polyp forms on colon wall a benign, precancerous tumor grows 2. Activation of oncogene from chromosome 12 a class II adenoma (benign) forms) 3. Loss of tumor-suppressor gene from chromosome 18 a class III adenoma (benign) grows 4. loss of tumor-suppressor gene from chromosome 17 a carcinoma (malignant tumor) forms 5. other changes ? cancer spreads to other tissues 16 5.Need for cell attachment normal cells must be anchored in place oncogenes produce proteins that break anchors but signal cell that it is anchored Immune System – The body’s defense system cells of the immune system roam the body looking for cells they don’t recognize as belonging cancer cells have changed and are not recognized as belonging if cells of the immune syst em encounter a cancer cell, they will be destroy it Factors that can cause cancer 1. carcinogens = chemicals that cause cancer cause mutations that lead to cancer many mutate p53 stimulate cell division (e. g. estrogen) inhibiting the immune system may be in environment, in food or drink, or inhaled at least 50 carcinogens some carcinogens are only carcinogenic after modification in the body 2. iruses consist of genetic information (usually DNA) inside a protein coat virus enters cell and uses host cell machinery to make new viruses viral DNA is inserted into host cell chromosome and is replicated with host cell DNA viral DNA is then a permanent part of host cell chromosome – it has transformed the cell into a cancer cell – all daughter cells will have the viral genes viruses have oncogenes that produce proteins that stimulate cell division viral protein produced may be hyperactive in stimulating cell division OR viral gene may direct human gene to produce too much of a protein that stimulates cell division result is a host cell that has been permanently changed by virus so that it contains an oncogene that stimulates cell division 3. radiation interacts with DNA and causes mutation ultraviolet (uv) radiation from sun causes skin cancer ionizing radiation natural sources (cosmic rays, radioactive materials in earth’s crust) medical sources (x-ray exams) 17 Risk Factors 1. revious breast or other form of cancer Breast Cancer most breast lumps are benign (not cancerous) fibrocystic breasts fibroadenoma death rate from breast cancer has been declining due to early detection practice monthly self exam breast cancer usually begins in the ducts (80%) or the glands begins as lump or tumor lump is usually in upper outer quadrant staged by size of lump and how far it has spread it can metastasize: break out of this site and spread to fatty tissue or other parts of body through lymphatic system or blood supply to determine whether cancer has spread they would look at sentinel nodes (first lymph nodes to which a tumor drains) 2. Gender females much more likely (men can get breast cancer) 3. Age chance of breast cancer goes up with age rises sharply after 40 4.Family history risk is 2X if: first-degree relative (mother, sister, daughter) with breast cancer risk is 5X if: 2 first-degree relatives with breast cancer may have inherited genes e. g. BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 these greatly increase chance of breast cancer BRCA 1 = a tumorsuppressor gene turns off another gene that blocks cell cycle 18 5. Hormone history prolonged, uninterrupted exposure to estrogen increases risk estrogen stimulates cell division in breast if too much estrogen some believe it can lead to cancer some types of breast tumors are stimulated to grow by estrogen more menstrual cycles = more exposure to estrogen risk increased by: a. early puberty – before 11 b. late menopause – after 55 c. not having children or delaying first pregnancy – after 30 What about other sources of estrogen? irth control pills – probably not hormone replacement after menopause – slight environmental sources – unknown certain pollutants mimic estrogen (pesticides, ingredients in plastics) electromagnetic fields can boost body’s production of estrogen 6. Obesity fat cells produce a substance that is converted to estrogen 7. Alcohol alcohol increases level of estrogen interferes with use of folate, which protects against tumor growth 19 Birth Control Effectiveness rate = # of couples out of every 100 using that means of contraception for 1 year who do NOT become pregnant Failure Rate = # of couples out of every 100 using that means of contraception for 1 year who DO become pregnant Typical Use = average person, use may be improper or inconsistent Vs.Perfect Use = proper and consistent use Effectiveness in Preventing STDs STDs spread by contact (direct contact is usually needed) Infected surface surface Uninfected Effectiv eness in Preventing Pregnancy Highly Effective 1. Sterilization (tubal ligation or vasectomy) prevent sperm from reaching egg 2. Hormonal Contraception A. Estrogen and progesterone – prevents egg development and ovulation 1. oral – the pill 2. vaginal ring – NuvaRing – woman inserts the ring so that it encircles the cervix worn 3 weeks, removed for the 4th 3. skin patch – OrthoEvra new patch once a week for 3 weeks 4th week no patch B. Progesterone-only contraception interferes with fertilization and implantation Types a. ral – mini pill (not used much in US) b. implants c. injections C. Emergency contraception – ? morning after pills? 1. Preven – estrogen and progesterone 2. Plan B – progesteroneonly first dose within 120 hours (5 days), second dose 12 hours later Decrease spread of STDs Certain means of contraception also prevent contact between body surfaces Condom – male or female Diaphragm or cervical cap (so me protection to woman) Increase spread of STDs Pill may increase woman’s risk of certain STDs Spermicides increase a woman’s risk of getting an STD from an infected partner; damages vaginal lining 20 3. IUD – interferes with fertilization and/or implantation; dislodges embryo 4.Diaphragm, cervical cap, FemCap, or Lea’s shield with spermicide – covers cervix and prevents sperm from reaching egg 5. Condom – prevents sperm from reaching egg 6. Vaginal sponge Moderately Effective 1. Spermicides – kill sperm Foams are best is used as only means of contraception May increase the risk of STD spread, particularly in women 2. Rhythm Method – abstinence on all days that could result in sperm meeting an egg Unreliable 1. Withdrawal (coitus interruptus) Does not work 1. Douching after intercourse 2. Intercourse standing up or in some other position 3. Intercourse during menstruation (during your period) 4. Intercourse while breastfeeding Reliable methods 1.Sterilization — permanent birth control Tubal ligation or vasectomy prevent the sperm from meeting the egg Should NOT be used if you or your partner may change your mind For male = vasectomy Close off vas deferens so sperm can’t leave the male’s body Sperm reabsorbed Still ejaculate Simple operation No effect on masculinity No effect on sex life or sex drive Risks: minimal Less than 1% of time tubes grow back together Occasionally a little bleeding in scrotum For women = tubal ligation = have tubes tied Close off oviducts (fallopian tubes) More difficult procedure than a vasectomy because must enter the abdominal cavity Does not cause menopause Will still menstruate No effect on sex drive 21 2. Hormonal Contraception A. Estrogen and progesterone – prevents egg development and ovulation 1. oral – the pill 2. aginal ring – NuvaRing – woman inserts the ring so that it encircles the cervix; worn 3 weeks, removed for the 4th 3. skin patch – OrthoEvra new patch once a week for 3 weeks; 4th week no patch expect same risks as pill, but know most about birth control pill Contain estrogen and progesterone Estrogen & progesterone inhibit FSH and LH Without FSH the egg doesn’t develop Without LH ovulation cannot occur Almost 100% effective – if used properly If you miss more than one day, use another form of birth control Side Effects Headaches Breast tenderness Weight gain Vaginal Infections are more common Serious Risks caused primarily by estrogen Circulatory System Problems rare but can be fatal A.Problems: (1) High blood pressure (2) Increased tendency to form blood clots (1) High blood pressure Increases with time on pill Increases with woman’s age STOP SMOKING – cigarette smoking also causes high blood pressure Blood pressure = pressure exerted by blood on vessel walls Created by beating of heart Pressure must be great enough to move blood around the body If too g reat = high blood pressure Problems caused by high blood pressure 1. strains the heart and blood vessels 2. can lead to an aneurysm (weak spot in artery wall balloons out; can rupture; bleed to death internally 3. promotes atherosclerosis (fatty deposits in arteries) and arteriosclerosis (hardening of arteries) 4. amages kidneys; can lead to kidney failure 22 (2) Increased tendency to form blood clots Danger is that a blood clot can break free and lodge in a small blood vessel, blocking blood flow B. Consequences: (1) Increased risk of heart attack and stroke Heart attack = death of heart cells Stroke = death of nerve cells in brain Heart attack & stroke occur when blood flow to heart or brain is interrupted by: Burst vessel Fatty deposits (atherosclerosis) Blood clot (2) increased risk of pulmonary embolism 2. Increased risk of urinary tract infections 3. Increased susceptibility to sexually transmitted diseases A. Change in pH of vagina – increased risk of chlamydia and gon orrhea B.Change in cervical structure exposes vulnerable cells C. HPV (human papilloma virus that causes genital warts) infection is more likely to result in cervical cancer Progesterone seems to activate HPV in cervical cells grown is culture Non-contraceptive benefits of the pill Decreased risk of PID (pelvic inflammatory disease) Decreased risk of ovarian and endometrial cancer Decreased risk of ectopic pregnancy Decreased risk of iron deficiency anemia 1. 2. 3. 4. 2. Hormonal contraception (cont. ) B. Progesterone-only contraception interferes with fertilization and implantation Types a. oral – mini pill (not used much in US) b. implants –hormone containing rods implanted in upper arm c. njections – DepoProvera injection every 3 months 99% effective in preventing pregnancy no protection against STDs 23 Mechanism of action of progesterone only a. Thickens cervical mucus b. Interferes with movement of sperm c. makes implantation more difficult because endometr ium thin d. Sometimes blocks ovulation e. Makes the corpus luteum degenerate too quickly (removes the source of progesterone that maintains the endometrium) Side effects a. Menstrual cycle disturbance Periods irregular More days of light bleeding Missed periods b. Weight gain c. breast tenderness d. bone density decreases 2. Hormonal contraception (cont. ) C. Emergency contraception – â€Å"morning after pills† 1. Preven – estrogen and progesterone 2.Plan B – progesteroneonly first dose within 72 hours, second dose 12 hours later Emergency contraception is thought to work by inhibiting or delaying ovulation preventing fertilization altering the endometrium, making it an inhospitable place for implantation of the young embryo used after an act of unprotected intercourse if pregnancy not desired risk of pregnancy varies from 0 – 26 after a single act of intercourse – depending on day of cycle morning after pill decreases the risk of pregnancy by 75% (e. g. from 26% to 6. 5%) does not affect the embryo is it has already implanted Side effects: 1. nausea in 50-70% of women 22% vomit 2. menstrual cycle disturbance next period 2 – 3 days early or late 3.IUD (intrauterine device) – interferes with fertilization and/or implantation; dislodges embryo Small device placed inside the uterus by physician remains effective for 1, 3 or 7 years, depending on the type 24 Effectiveness 97% with progesterone 99% with copper Mechanism of action of IUD– affects: Sperm – immobilizes sperm; interferes with their movement Ovum – speeds up movement to uterus Fertilization inhibited Endometrium – not properly developed for implantation FemCap – 3 sizes, latex free, removal strap Prevents the sperm from reaching the egg Must use with spermicidal cream or jelly Helps seal gaps Holds it in place Added chemical protection Must be fitted by a health care professional so seal is tight refit if weight c hanges by more than 10 lbs. Effectiveness 97-98% perfect use 81% typical use It is ? at the time? rotection In place not more than 2 – 3 hr before intercourse Left in place at least 6 – 8 hrs. after intercourse Offers the woman some protection against STDs Risks with diaphragm – minimal 1. slight increase frequency of bladder infection 2. possible allergic reaction 3. toxic shock syndrome don’t leave in place more than 24 hours or use when you have your period 1. 2. 3. 4. Disadvantages 1. if never had children, insertion is painful 2. may have heavier menstrual flow & more cramps 3. body may reject it – then not protected against pregnancy Risks 1. pelvic inflammatory disease – primarily following insertion of the device can lead to sterility and increased risk of ectopic pregnancy 2. increased risk of ectopic pregnancy 4.Diaphragm or cervical cap with spermicide – covers cervix and prevents sperm from reaching egg Soft rubber cup on flexible ring that fits over the cervix Lea’s shield one-size fits all reusable device 25 5. Condom – prevents sperm from reaching egg A. Male condom Thin strong latex sheath that covers the penis and prevents sperm from reaching the egg Disadvantages: Must be placed on an erect penis – before contact with vagina Decreased sensation Failures usually due to tearing if pulled on too tightly – leave at tip if too little lubrication Penis should be withdrawn from vagina while still erect B. female condom Pouch of polyurethane with a flexible ring at each end Effectiveness in preventing pregnancy — 74% typical use Effectiveness against STDs Little known Does provide a barrier Male condom still better 6.Vaginal sponge use: put in place before intercourse (moisten first) leave in place for at least 6 hours after intercourse effective for 24 hours works by: 1. creating a barrier to sperm 2. trapping sperm in sponge 3. spermicide to kill sperm effectivenes s: about 83% less if you have had children Moderately Effective 1. Spermicides – kill sperm Foams are best is used as only means of contraception Effectiveness in preventing pregnancy – about 80% for 60 min. Increases a woman’s risk of getting an STD from an infected partner; damages vaginal lining 26 2. Rhythm Method – abstinence on all days that could result in sperm meeting an egg Egg Can be fertilized for about24 hr. after ovulation Ovulation ccurs 14+/days before the onset of flow Sperm Can live for at least 2 days within woman’s body Problem is predicting ovulation 2 days before it occurs Effectiveness about 75% Fertile period Subtract 14 days from cycle length Add 2 days on either side for uncertainty in time of ovulation Earliest fertile day = 2 days before earliest expected day of ovulation Latest fertile day = 1 day after the latest expected day of ovulation Works best if you avoid all days until at least 1 day after you know ovulation ha s occurred Ways of detecting ovulation 1. Body temperature Requires a special thermometer Must be done first thing in the morning When body temperature increases slightly and stays up ovulation has probably occurred 2. cervical mucus cervical secretion is more slippery and thinner at ovulation Unreliable 1. Withdrawal before ejaculation (coitus interruptus) Methods that DON’T work 1. Douching after intercourse 2. Intercourse standing up or in some other position 3. Intercourse during menstruation (during your period) 4. Intercourse while breastfeeding 27Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) and Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) Extremely Common 2/3 of cases in people under age 25 More likely to affect women Women exposed greater surface area of mucous membrane during sexual contact Women less likely to know they are infected Infected area not easily seen Urethra less likely to be infected So less like to be pain Therefore, women more like to have serious consequences. Spread by contact (direct contact is usually needed) Infected ? Uninfected surface surface Mucous membranes are most vulnerable linings of: Urethra Vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes Vulva (external genitalia of woman) Mouth and throat Rectum Eyes Many STDs can enter through break in skinBacteria A bacterium is a single cell A bacterium can divide very rapidly producing two daughter cells results in very rapid (exponantial) growth of the population *Bacteria produce harmful chemicals = toxins (poisons) of enzymes these toxins kills or damage body cells the damage to body cells causes the symptoms of the disease Bacteria ? Toxin or Enzyme ? Damages / Kills Body Cells Bacteria divide rapidly ? More Cells? More Toxin (or enzyme) ? More damage to body. * Sometimes the damage or symptom is caused by the body's defense mechanisms against the disease. Bacteria = cells with a slightly different structure than the cells found in your body Bacteria have a cell structures (called ribosomes) that have a sliightly different structure than human version Structural differences are important because they allow antibiotics to bactieria without killing host (your) cells. 28Antibiotics kill bacteria by: preventing bacteria from making cell walls OR preventing bacteria from making complete proteins OR damaging the plasma membrane Bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics by: inactivating the antibiotic pumping the antibiotic out of cell devoloping the ability to function in spite of antibiotics Antibiotic – resistant bacteria are a major health threat Antibiotic Resistance Some bacteria are now resistant to every known antibiotic Bacteria get their resistance from genes that: Inactivate the antibiotic Pump the antibiotic out of the cell Allow them to function in spite of antibiotic How do bacteria get these resistance genes? 1. They can get their own genes through mutation and selection a. mutation rate is high because rate of cell division is high hen antibiotics are used that a re not strong enough or are not used long enough, the most resistant survive each time antibiotic taken improperly, the more resistant bacteria survive resistance builds b. the â€Å"good bacteria? are killed by the antibiotic† the resistant bacteria can reproduce faster than normal, healthful bacteria and cause illness 2. Bacteria can get resistance genes from other bacteria through plasmids that carry genes for resistance Plasmids – a small circular piece of DNA (genetic materal) that contains a few genes not necessary for bacteria to live, but bacteria with them often have an advantage can be inserted into bacterial chromosome and come out as circular piece again Plasmids can be copied and a copy gived to another bacterium through sex then both bacteria have the genes on the plasmid. 29Certain plasmids (called R factors) have genes for resistance to antibiotics possible to have genes for 1 or 10 different antibiotics genes for resistance for one antibiotic can be ad ded to a plasmid than has genes for resistance to other antibiotics leads to the development of bacteria that are resistance to many different antibiotics multi-drug resistance tends to happen in places where antibiotic use is heavy hospitals farm animals Resistance develops where antibiotics used most Hospitals Livestock Overuse and Misuse of antibiotics has led to resistance 1. Misuse for medical purposes Don't demand antibiotics for viral diseases – they don't work on viruses Take the full course of your prescription 2.Widespead use in livestock and agriculture Used in livestock to promote growth Resistance genes can spread from the animals to the bacteria that harm humans Cook meat throroughly (be sure meat juices don't come in contact with other food) Wash fruits and vegetables Avoid raw eggs Chlamydia and Gonorrhea Caused by different bacteria but have similar symptoms Both primarily affect mucous membranes Most noticeable symptom – if it occurs – is pain during urination This occurs if urethra is infected Urethra is more likely to infected in a male Therefore males more likely to have symptoms Often they don't cause symptoms Can still spread the cactiria to others Bacteria still damage reproductive structures 30Chlamydia (Chlamydia trachomatis) Most common bacterial STD in US Highly contagious Symptoms – slow to appear, 3 weeks to months Men More likely to have symptoms than women Painful urination Discharge from urethra Women If urethra is infected Painful urination Discharge from urethra PID (chlamydia causes 50-90% of PID) Slight vaginal discharge Pain during intercourse Abdominal pain & fever Chlamydia is the STD the most likely to cause scar tissue to form in the tubes that gametes move through Because of scar tissue: Chlamydia is the STD most likely to cause sterility Chlamydia is the STD most likely to increase the risk of an ectopic pregnancy The bacteria that cause chlamydia Must live within a cell because they canno t generate their own ATP They use the ATP that the host cell produces Energy in food ATP Energy for cell activities Effects on Fetus in Utero can cause membranes to rupture can cause death of fetus contracted during birth blindness pneumonia infection of mouth, throat, rectum Diagnosis Urine test for DNA for Chalmydia Swab cervix (women) or urethra (males) and culture cells Pap test (women) Treatment: Antibiotics Gonorrhea Caused by diplococcus bacterium Neisseria gonorrheae Symptoms Often none Men More likely to have symptoms than women Painful urination Discharge from urethra 31Women If urethra is infected Painful urination Discharge from urethra PID Slight vaginal discharge Pain during intercourse Abdominal pain & fever Acidity decreases if on pill or at menopause Effect on fetus: Contracted during birth May cause blindness Diagnosis: Urine test form DNA Swab cervix (women) or urethra (males) and culture cells Look for bacteria in cells Treatment: Antibiotics New varieties are re sistant to antibiotics Syphilis Cause = bacterium (Treponema pallidum) Requires a warm, moist environment Can invade any mucous membrane Usually in the genital area Three Stages 1. Primary Stage 2-6 weeks after contact chancre forms may be small swelling or deep lesion usually hard raised edges â€Å"crater-like† painless at site of contact heals by itself in 4-6 weeks diagnosis at this pint is by isolation of the bacterium from chancre 2.Secondary Stage 2-10 weeks after chancre appears Symptoms Rash- doesn't itch, ulcerates Ulcers in mucous membranes In mouth, vulva, vagina, rectum Warly growths around anus and genital organs Headache Body ache May have: Sore throat Gastrointestinal upset Loss of hair Diagnosis at this stage: Blood test that looks for antibodies (VDRL) 32 3. Tertiary Stage 8-25 years after initial contact almost any organ can be infected and develop lesions called a gumma most common sites of gummas: 1. large arteries decrease diameter of artery aneurysm â⠂¬â€œ weak spot in artery that balloons out 2. brain & spinal cord Blindness Deafness Paralysis Mental degeneration 3.Skeleton Effect of fetus Transferred across placenta Can cause deformities Can be fatal Treatment: Early stages curables with antibiotics Virus Viruses have genetic material (usually DNA but some have RNA) and a protein coat (capsid) Structure of a typical virus Steps in Viral Life Cycle 1. Attachement – Viral protein binds to receptor on host cell 2. Penetration – virus enters host cell 3. Biosynthesis – viral genetic material replicated by using host cell ? machinery;? new coat proteins made 4. Assembly – newly synthesized viral compnents put together to form new viruses 5. Release [called viral shedding or budding]; viruses leave cell with envelopes from host cell OR Viruses genetic information can be integrated into host cell chromosome and stay there in dormant form until it is reactivated Viruses can cause call damage as they are rel eased (shed) 1.Rapid release – cell can rupture and die 2. slow release – cell damage and dearth occurs over long time period 3. Periodic release – viruses can remain in certain body cells (e. g. nerve cells) for life; they may be release from body cells periodically and enter new target cells. (herpes can remain in nerve cells; be released epriodically and enter new epithelial cells; damages the epithelial cells) 4. be integrated into host chromosome and stay there in dormant form until it is reactivated 33 Lytic Infection Persistent Infection Latent Infection Transformation to cancerous cell Rapid release of new viruses from infecded cell caused cell death.The symptoms of the disease depend on which cells are killed Slow release of new viruses causes cell to remain alive and continue to produce new viruses for a prolonged period of time. Delay between infection and symptoms. Virus is present in the cell without harming the cell. Symptoms beging when the virus begins actively replication and causes cell death when new viruses exit the cell. Certain viruses insert their genetic information into host cell chromosomes. Some carry oncogenes (cancer – causing genes) that are active in the host cell. Some disrupt the functioning of the host cell's genes that regulate cell division, causing the cell to become cancerous. Viruses and Disease 1.Can cause cell damage as they leave the host cell; the cell damage causes the symptoms 2. Can cause cancer when they insert themselves into host chromosome or by producing factors that affect the host genes that regulate cell division Genital Herpes Cause virus Herpes simplex -type 1 (HSV-1) – usually associated with fever blisters + cold sores -type 2 (HSV-2) – usually causes similar sores in genital area Symptoms (if there are symptoms) first may have a tingling or itching sensation (called the prodrome) 2-20 days after contact blisters of fluid filled sores 1st attack lasts about 3 wk s (1wk-4wks) can use ointments to relieve the pain will go away whether treated or not Also cause cancer hen they insert themselves into host chromosome o r by producing factors that affect the host genes that regulate cell division Viruses and Disease 34 Genital Warts in about half (50%) of people with herpes: blisters reform periodically usually at times of stress because the virus moves the the sacral ganglia of the spinal cord not affected by the human immune system here can be reawakened + cause new sores -maybe 2x month or 1x in 10yrs -NO CURE Genital Herpes spread by contact of infected and uinfected surface no sex while blister present or during prodrome or for at least 10 days after blisters are gone use a condom at all timeseven when no blisters are present erpes can be spread to newborn if deliver vaginally while virus is present if infant's infection is in liver and central nervous system-can be fatal Diagnosis Examination of sores Culture fluid from sores Blood test for antibodies in women-Pap test Treatment -Syptoms only Acyclovir (Zovirax):-reduce severity of first outbreak and reduce frequency of recurrences Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) usually transmitted by sexual contact 50-70% of those who have sex with an infected person will get them more likely if on the pill or pregnant or uncircumsized appear 1-2 months after contact, maybe longer appearance of growth on dry areas- brownish on moist areas-pink they grow may cause foul-smelling discharge may itch -warts can be removed by: 1. freezing 2. burning 3. laser 4. treated with a chemical (podophyllin) that is painted onleft 4 hrs. washed away warts fall off * virus may remain Diagnosis appearance of wart in women-Pap test can look for DNA of HPV inside cells 35 Genital Warts *ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED RISK OF CERVICAL CANCER -HPV found in 90% of women with cervical cancer There is now a vaccine against HPV and, therefore, against cervical cancer *ASSOCIATED WITH AND INCREASED RISK OF CANCER OF P ENIS 36 BODY DEFENSES Innate Responses – Nonspecific Physical and Chemical Barriers Adaptive defense: Specific defenses (directed at specific target): The immune system: 1. Specific for particular â€Å"invader† (antigen) 2. Has memory for specific antigens previously encountered Lymphocyte encounters antigen Immune responses have 1.Specificity: Specific for particular â€Å"invader† (antigen) Antigen = a large molecule (not recognized as belonging in the body) that triggers an immune response Ex: antigen can be on the surface of a bacterium or virus etc. ; can be a bacterial toxin Your body cells have markers (molecules) that label them as belonging in your body Each lymphocyte has receptors on its surface that recognize a specific antigen When that antigen is present, it causes that lymphocyte to divide many times Effector cells Memory cells Effector cells attack specific target Memory cells remain and provide a quick response in subsequent exposure to same an tigen Third line of defense: Specific defenses (directed at specific target): The immune system: Immune system is 1. specific for a particular ? invader? antigen) 2. has memory for specific antigen previously encountered Creates an army of lymphocytes specialized to attack that antigen These are called Effector cells 2. Memory: have memory for specific antigen previously encountered Memory lymphocytes remain to cause a quick response the next time the same antigen is encountered 37 STEPS IN IMMUNE RESPONSE 1. Threat: foreign cell or molecule enters body 2. Detection Macrophage: detects invader engulfs invader digests invader 3. Alert: Macrophage places a piece of consumed antigen on its plasma membrane attached to a self marker presents the antigen to a helper T cell activates the helper T cell 4.Alarm: Helper T Cell: after activation by a macrophage, it divides, forming effector helper T cells and memory helper T cells turns â€Å"on† both lines of immune response to fight t hat specific antigen by activating B cells and T cells 5. Build specific defense (clonal selection) Lymphocyte encounters antigen Effector cells attack specific target Memory cells remain and provide a quick response in subsequent exposure to same antigen 6. Defense A. Antibody-mediated immune response Effector B cell = Plasma cell Plasma cells secrete antibodies Targets = antigens outside of cell or on surface of cell B. Cell-mediated immune response Effector T cell = cytotoxic T cell Cytotoxic T cells kill foreign cells by causing them to burst Targets = cells bearing antigens (any cells recognized as foreign: e. g. nfected cell, bacteria, cancer cell) 7. Continued surveillance memory cells remain 8. Withdrawal of forces After antigen has been destroyed suppressor T cells shut down the immune response Effector cells cells Memory 38 A. Antibody-mediated immune response Effector B cell = Plasma cell Plasma cells secrete antibodies Targets = antigens outside of cell or on surface of cell An antibody is a Y-shaped protein designed to recognize a specific antigen Antibodies help defend against a specific antigen Can only work against antigens that are free in blood Antibodies bind to the antigen Antibodies are secreted by plasma cells (effector B cells) Ways that Antibodies can Work 1.Neutralization – bind to antigen prevent virus from being able to enter host cell inactivate toxin 2. Agglutination and precipitation -clumps â€Å"invaders† together makes it easier for other cells to engulf them 3. Activation of complement system complement (system) is a group of proteins that pokes holes causes â€Å"invader† to burst B. Cell-mediated immune response Effector T cell = cytotoxic T cell Cytotoxic T cells kill foreign cells by causing them to burst Targets = cells bearing antigens (any cells recognized as foreign: e. g. infected cell, bacteria, cancer cell) Cytotoxic T cells secrete proteins called perforins that poke holes in â€Å"invaderâ₠¬  or foreign cells, causing them to burst 39Cells Involved In the Immune System Macrophage: an antigen presenting cells engulfs and digests antigens places a piece of consumed antigen on its plasma membrane presents the antigen to a helper T cell activates the helper T cell B Cells: T Cells: Helper T Cell: the â€Å"on† switch for both lines of immune response after activation by a macrophage, it divides, forming effector helper T cells and memory helper T cells activate B cells and T cells Cytotoxic T cell: (effector T cell) responsible for cellmediated immune responses when activated by helper T cell, it divides to form effector cytotoxic T cells and memory cytotoxic T cells destroys cellular targets, such as virusinfected body cells, bacteria, fungi, arasites, and cancer cells Suppressor T cell: the â€Å"off† switch for immune responses suppresses the activity of B cells and T cells after the foreign cell or molecule has been successfully destroyed involved in an tibodymediated responses when activated by helper T cells, it divides to form plasma cells and memory cells Plasma Cell: effector in antibodymediated response secretes antibodies specific to the invader Memory Cells: responsible for memory of immune system generated by B cells or any type of T cell during an immune response enable quick and efficient response on subsequent exposures of the antigen may live for years 40 AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Caused by HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HIV infects T cells T cells become HIV factories Organism enters body Macrophage detects it HIV kills helper T cells so THIS doesn’t happen Activates a helper T cell Stimulates division of cytotoxic T cells (attack foreign cells) As helper T cell numbers drop, the body becomes increasingly susceptible to infection Stimulates B cells to form antibodies (destroys the infectious organism) 41

Abolition of Slavery essays

Abolition of Slavery essays The conflicting and different perspectives adopted by the North and South in discussing the issue of black American slavery is founded mainly on economic, rather than political differences. It is important to note that the two regions have different economic and political orientations when the early British settlers inhabited the then-called Americas. The Southern region inhabitants inhabited the part of the territory that has sparse fertile land, low and often scarce water resource, and a generally unfriendly environment, which resulted to numerous deaths due to illnesses obtained while inhabiting the Southern region lands. The Northern region, meanwhile, enjoyed relatively better environmental resources than their Southern counterpart. The Northern region inhabitants easily established its own agricultural society and grew in number/ population, as compared to the Southerners. Thus, when black slaves were shipped to America, the Southerners took advantage of the slavery system in order to convert their misfortunes into an economic success, eventually becoming well-known for their cotton plantations. However, the Northerners, with a rich economic disposition and growing cultural heritage, learned to recognize the rights of the black American slaves. Since they were not too dependent on the slavery system to maintain their healthy economic disposition, they were the first ones who sought for a social reform in terms of how slavery is recognized and supported in America. The Southerners, completely dependent on the slaves to maintain their plantations and keep their economic resources available in the region, argued against the call for a social reform, arguing for the maintenance of the slavery system as a necessary measure to help America, as a nation, survive economically and politically. The Amistad case is considered a landmark case that helped develop the abolitionist movement against the practice of black...

Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous

Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous By Maeve Maddox A reader comments: I have seen and heard the word homogeneous  used to refer to a multiracial or multicultural society, whereas I would have used heterogeneous. Surely homogeneous  describes an â€Å"unmixed† group of people or things? Homogeneous is from a Greek word meaning â€Å"of the same kind.† It is often used in the context of describing a group of people who are all of one race, religion, ethnicity, or gender. For example, until 1932 when Hattie Caraway of Arkansas became the first woman to win election to the US Senate, that governing body was homogeneous in that it was made up entirely of men. The following examples illustrate this meaning of homogeneous: Pastors in the United States need to be intentional in making their congregations less homogeneous and more multi-ethnic, says the pastor of one of the fastest growing churches in the country. Countries in Europe and Northeast Asia tend to be the most homogenous [sic], sub-Saharan African nations the most diverse. Note: In the second example, the spelling homogenous is an error. The word spelled homogenous (without the second e) is used in biology with the meaning â€Å"having a common descent.† For example, â€Å"Any graft, either autogenous or homogenous, that is not immediately required can be stored for use at a later date.† Heterogeneous is from a Greek word meaning â€Å"of different kinds.† It may also be used to describe inanimate objects as well as groups of people: Now residents of highly educated, high income, racially mixed communities are often attracted to interethnic heterogeneous churches. Rubbish is composed of  a heterogeneous mixture  of discarded materials and is largely of  household origin. It is made up principally of paper, rags, wood, glass, crockery, bottles, tin cans, and numerous  other wastes.   The  melting pot  is a metaphor for a heterogeneous society becoming more homogeneous, the different elements melting together into a harmonious whole with a common culture.   The â€Å"melting pot† example offers a clue to the apparent contradiction that the reader has noticed in â€Å"the use of homogeneous  used to refer to a multiracial or multicultural society.† For example, a group might include a mix of different races, but be the same in some other respect: â€Å"Unlike state prisons, which almost exclusively hold people serving state sentences, jail populations are heterogeneous, making them particularly challenging to manage,† the report said. In this context, prisoners in a state prison are seen as a homogeneous group, in contrast to prisoners in a local jail. The prison inmates, whatever their race or gender, are homogeneous in that they are all there for the same reason: all are serving state sentences. What makes the jail inmates heterogeneous is not race or gender, but the fact that they have different reasons for being there. Perhaps the most controversial of all philosophical dilemmas concerning the structuring of people within the middle school is the homogeneous versus heterogeneous grouping debate. In this context, a â€Å"homogeneous grouping† would consist of children of similar abilities, whereas a â€Å"heterogeneous grouping† would include children of varying abilities. When lawmakers speak of the necessity to create â€Å"a homogeneous multiracial society,† their goal is a society in which race, ethnicity, and religion are of secondary importance to a sense of civic equality and consciousness of a shared culture. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:The Yiddish Handbook: 40 Words You Should KnowTaser or Tazer? Tazing or Tasering?Predicate Complements

My letter to facuty senate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

My letter to facuty senate - Essay Example from a professional, I have learned that I am suffering from acute psychological disaster which was brought by the tragic circumstances that I need to go through. I am really sorry for not being a good student during those two semesters. Noting your experience, I know that you’re aware of the tough times that youth need to go through. Those past years have really been challenging for me as a person to remind myself that everything will be fine when I feel just too exhausted from personal burdens. The years that I’ve spent in the army did me good by instilling me with a sense of responsibility and developing my maturity. I have learned to be selfless and appreciate even those little things which I have. Thus, I would like to pursue a college education in Smeal College. Please, help me accomplish this dream by erasing those two semesters of immaturity and lack of disciple in my

African cinema is a film world in search of a constituency and a Essay

African cinema is a film world in search of a constituency and a community, and it realises that it is potentially a borderless cinema - John Akomfrah (Givanni, 1995, 36) Discuss - Essay Example This is primarily the ground why J. Akomfrah claims that a sense of community and constituency are continuously yearned for by the borderless cinematic endeavor of an African film industry traditionally inclined to bring to exhibition various aspects of living especially the scenes at the wild, life under poverty, or tribal struggles across the vastness of an African land. The 1975 Algiers Charter on African Cinema placed emphasis on the need of the film to communicate the cultural identity of the people of Africa and develop this goal for the viewers to achieve a more sensible understanding of a Nigerian culture. New African cinematographers have come up with a serious objective of informing and educating the public, knowing how powerful a film is in delivering crucial expressions of African way of life in a simplified approach that may be comprehended by the majority whether educated or uneducated (The Algiers, 1975). In 1973, Djibril Diop Mambà ©ty directed â€Å"Touki Bouki† which is a movie about the meeting of a cowherd Mory and a university student Anta who seem estranged to their places of origin, Senegal and Africa, that they decided to consider travelling to Paris for a change of fate though this would entail fraudulent job of satisfying a monetary requirement. One may particularly note the significance of adventure for an African life in this film yet the context from which it sheds light toward conflict resolution is different from the perspective of the film â€Å"Yeelen† after the direction of Souleymane Cissà © in 1987. Yeelen demonstrates a personal conquest of a young warrior who possesses powers of magic and summons his other relative in combat against a sorcerer who happens to be his own father. Despite the amply differing themes of these two films, both reflect a necessary quest for settlement in favor of the situations that fit each character. On the other hand, Idrissa